Was The 'Rainbow' Division Tarnished By Its Battlefield Behavior In World War I?

World War I began in Europe in 1914, however, the United States remained neutral until 6 April 1917 when President Woodrow Wilson signed the joint resolution declaring that a state of war now existed between the United States of America and Imperial Germany. Three months later, in August 1917, U. S. National Guard units from twenty-six states and the District of Columbia united to form the 42nd Division of the United States Army. Douglas MacArthur, serving as Chief of Staff for the Division, commented that it "would stretch over the whole country like a rainbow." In this manner, the 42nd became known as the "Rainbow Division." It comprised four infantry regiments from New York, Ohio, Alabama, and Iowa. Men from many other states, among them New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Indiana, Michigan, Rhode Island, Maryland, California, South Carolina, Missouri, Connecticutt, Tennessee, New Jersey, Colorado, Maine, North Carolina, Kansas, Texas, Wisconsin, Texas, Illinois, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Oregon, and Pennsylvania also joined the division and became machine gunners, ambulance drivers, worked in field hospitals, or served in the military police.

The Southeastern Department commander recommended that the 4th Alabama Infantry be assigned to the 42nd. The commander of the 4th was Colonel William P. Screws, a former regular army officer who had served from 1910 to 1915 as the inspector-instructor for the Alabama National Guard. Screws was widely regarded as one of the major assets of the Alabama National Guard, and his reputation was likely a prominent factor in the selection of the 4th to join the 42nd. To upgrade the 4th Infantry to war strength, the transfer of the necessary numbers of enlisted men from other Alabama Guard units, including the 1st and 2nd Infantry Regiments and the 1st Alabama Cavalry.

On August 15 the War Department officially redesignated the 4th Alabama Infantry as the 167th Infantry Regiment, 84th Brigade, 42nd Division. The regiment comprised 3,622 enlisted troops and 55 enlisted medical staff for a total of 3,677men. The 1st Alabama Infantry had contributed 880 enlisted men to join the new 167th, the 2nd Alabama Infantry and the 1st Alabama Cavalry had provided enlisted men to bring the 167th to war strength, which was nominally 3,700 officers and men.
The Rainbow Division became one of the first sent to Europe in 1917 to support French troops in battles at Chateau-Thierry, St. Mihiel, the Verdun front, and Argonne. On 15 July 1918 the Division, acting as part of the 4th French Army, assisted in containing the final German offensive at the Battle of Champagne.

Let us set the scenario for the matter of alleged American battlefield atrocities on the part of the 'Rainbow' Division. On 15 July 1918, the Germans, in their final bid to end the war in their favor, launched a massive attack southward in the Champagne country of France. Although most of the defending troops were French, there were some units of the U.S. 42nd Division also involved in the defense and in the counter-attacks that ensued.

Concerning the battle participation of the U. S. 42nd ('Rainbow') Division in the Champagne-Marne Defensive battle of 15 July 1918, we read as follows in Donovan, America's Master Spy, by Richard Dunlop:

"The regimental commanders [of the U. S. 42nd Division] were instructed to post only a few men in the first trench line, which would easily fall. Most were to be positioned in the second line, from which they were also expected to withdraw as the Germans swept ahead."

"On July 15 at 12:04 a.m., the German artillery commenced one of the war's most tremendous barrages. When at 4:30 a.m. the artillery stopped firing as suddenly as it had started, the silence over no-man's-land was dreadful. The first Germans appeared wraithlike, running toward the American lines through the morning mist. Minenwerfers [large caliber German mortars] suddenly rained down on the defending Americana, and machine guns chattered death. The Americans who escaped the first charge scrambled back to the second line."

"The Germans found themselves in full possession of the American first trenches; they thought they had won. They shouted, cheered and broke into song. Then the American barrage opened on the trenches. Since each piece of artillery had been carefully zeroed in on the trenches when they were still in American hands, the accuracy of the gunfire was uncanny. Some of the crack Prussian Guards still managed to reach the second line of trenches, but they too were repulsed, after bloody hand-to-hand encounters. The Germans broke off the attack."

"To Donovan's [Colonel William J. Donovan, commanding officer of the 165th Infantry Regiment, from New York] disgust, the Germans resorted to subterfuge. Four Germans, each with a Red Cross emblazoned on his arm, carried a stretcher up to the lines held by the 165th. When they were close, they yanked a blanket from the stretcher to reveal a machine gun, with which they opened fire. The Americans shot them dead. Still another group tried to infiltrate the American lines one night wearing French uniforms. They too were shot. All told, some breakthroughs were made, but the Germans had been halted by the Americans. The Americans had not been defeated as the French battle plans had expected they would be. After three days of battle, the Germans began
to pull back." 1

On 18 August 1918 the following cablegram was received at American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) headquarters, Chaumont, France:

""A F August 18, 1918.

Commanding General, 42nd Division, Bourmont.

Following received from Washington:
"For Nolan. Condemned Associated Press Dispatch from London received by Cable Censor '0055 Monday Baumans Amsterdam accusation that soldier[s'] of 42nd American line Division enraged at losses suffered 15/7 near Rheims killed same evening 150 German prisoners is made by Wolff Bureau on "Creditable authority" and accordingly displayed in Saturday's German papers'. Dispatch held for assumed inaccuracy. Investigate and report." Make immediate investigation and report by wire this office. By direction.

Nolan

4.55 P.M. "" 2
A "Condemned Associated Press Dispatch..." is assumed to be an AP dispatch which was intercepted by the "Cable Censor" and deemed unfit for forwarding (if sent from F&F) or transmission (if originating in London) and thus was condemned. This action would also presumably be taken if the origin of the telegram or cablegram was thought to be spurious or even sent under false pretenses. The original copy of this message was most probably burned with the "Confidential waste" at AEF HQ Chaumont.

Pershing and his staff at Chaumont did everything possible to control the press and the AEF staff would quickly 'condemn' sources from reporters and reports that were not run through General Pershing's staff.

Regarding the day the telegram was received by AEF HQ on August 18, 1918, this would have been on a Sunday. "0055 Monday" in the telegram would refer to 12 August 1918. The telegram was received shortly after the Champagne-Marne Defensive Campaign, and while the U. S. 42nd Division was fighting in the Marne Salient during July and August of 1918. The "Wolff Bureau" was the Wolff Telegraph Agency in Berlin, a semi-official German new agency in 1918.

The G-2 (Intelligence Officer) of AEF Headquarters, Brigadier General Dennis E. Nolan took prompt action to investigate the alleged murder of German prisoners of war on 15 July 1918 during the Champagne-Marne Defensive Campaign. Nolan directed Major General Charles T. Menoher, commander of the U. S. 42nd Division to undertake an immediate investigation of the charge. The investigation was made on 20 August 1918 at the station of the U. S. 42nd Division, AEF, Bourmont, France.

The U.S. 42nd Division was composed of troops from Alabama, Ohio, Iowa, and New York. The troops that had contact with the German Army on 15 July 1918 were:

2nd Battalion, 165th Infantry Regiment (New York); 3rd Battalion, 166th Infantry Regiment (Ohio); 2nd Battalion, 167th Infantry Regiment (formerly 4th Alabama), and Companies E and F of the 168th Infantry Regiment (Iowa).

The force of the investigation fell on the 2nd Battalion, 165th Infantry, the 3rd Battalion of the 168th, 2nd Battalion, 167th, and Companies E and F of the 168th.

According to the "Report of investigation of reported killing of German prisoners of war," from the Division Inspector and to the Commanding General, 42nd Division, AEF, sworn testimony was taken from a total of thirty-eight officers of the 42nd Division, and particularly from officers whose troops were so stationed as to come into contact with the Germans in the Champagne battle of 15 July 1918. Twenty-three officers gave sworn testimony and fifteen company-grade officers were required to give depositions. The testimony was uniformly a denial that any atrocities were committed during the fighting that day of 15 July 1918.

According to the same report, "All the officers state that no German prisoners were killed by American troops nor were any mistreated; not did any officer hear anything to that effect. On the contrary the prisoners were treated well, the wounded cared for and carefully transported to the rear and the prisoners given food, drink and cigarettes. In at least one case a wounded prisoner was carried while one of our wounded officers walked." 3

The "CONCLUSION" of the report states: "That the statements contained in the telegram set forth in Paragraph II of this report are false and without any foundation in fact. That all prisoners taken by troops of the 42nd Division were turned over immediately to the French military authorities, and that, therefore, no troops of the 42nd Division had access to them other than those whose statements are covered by this report." 4
The "RECOMMENDATION" of the report states: "That no further action be taken." The findings were forwarded to AEF Headquarters and there the matter was dropped. 5

An unknown German newspaper purportedly published in Berlin, Germany, on Saturday, 17 August 1918 allegedly printed an article alleging that 150 wounded and captured German soldiers were summarily killed by soldiers of the U. S. 42nd Division on 15 July 1918. There were five newspapers published in Berlin on the date of Saturday, 17 August 1918: Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, Deutsche Tageszeitung Germania, Neues Preussische Zeitung, Nordeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, Vossiche Zeitung. Searches of the mentioned German newspapers have been made by several historians. No atrocity articles have ever been located in these German papers.

In James J. Cooke's book, The Rainbow Division in the Great War, we read:
""The Rainbows also had developed a very real hatred for the Germans. During the German bombardment on 15 July 1918, the doctors and nurses moved what wounded they could to a dugout, and the once callow Lieutenant van Dolsen recoiled in horror at what he saw":

"Well we got down into the dug out and my dear mother such a shamble I never hope to see again. A long black tunnel lighted just a little by candles, our poor wounded shocked boys there on litters in the dark, eight of them half under ether just as they had come off the tables their legs only half amputated, surgeons trying to finish and check blood in the dark, the floor soaked with blood, the hospital above us a wreck, three patients killed and one blown out of bed with his head off. Believe me I will never forgive the bastards as long as I live."

Editor's note: Lt. van Dolsen, being an officer, was able to 'censor' his own letters, otherwise this type of comment would never have reached the home front. Van Dolsen's letter to his aunt, Occupation Forces, Germany, 19 February 1919, MHIA. See also Stewart, Rainbow Bright, 70-71.
"One Alabama private who was in the thickest of the fighting on 15 July wrote to his mother, "All of you can cheer up and wear a smile for I'm a little hero now. I got two of the rascals and finished killing a wounded with my bayonet that might have gotten well had I not finished him...I couldn't be satisfied at killing them, how could I have mercy on such low life rascals as they are?"
"A good bit of this hatred resulted from the Germans approaching American lines dressed in French uniforms taken from the dead in the first line sacrifice trench."

"The hand-to-hand fighting was especially severe for the Alabamians and New Yorkers, and many of their comrades were killed or wounded in the fighting for the second defense line and in the counter-attacks that followed. Adding to the confusion was the occasional round of friendly artillery fire that fell short and hit the Americans as they repulsed the enemy."

"The Alabama defense and decisive counter-attacks on 15 July was praised by all, and established the 167th Regiment as the best fighting regiment within the division."

"There had always been rumors of units of the 42nd Division taking no prisoners. Major William J. Donovan, in May of 1918, described to his wife the possibility of the Alabamians' of the 167th Infantry Regiment capturing and killing two Germans, and he ended his letter stating, "They [the 167th] wander all over the landscape shooting at everything."

"Elmer Sherwood, the Hoosier gunner, reported the story that the Alabamians attacked a German trench with Bowie knives. "They cleaned up on the enemy,
Sherwood recalled, "but it is no surprise to any of us, because they are a wild bunch, not knowing what fear is."

While in Germany on occupation duty with the Rainbow, Lieutenant van Dolsen wrote to his aunt back in Washington, DC, that the Alabams "did not take many prisoners, but I do not blame them for that."

"The New York regiment was also known for fierce fighting and taking few prisoners on the battlefield. This issue of battlefield atrocities by the U. S. 42nd Division would again surface after the severe fighting at Croix Rouge Farm, in the Marne Salient, where the soldiers from Alabama and Iowa were heavily engaged at close quarters with a determined enemy." 6

J. Phelps Harding, 2nd Lt., 165th Regiment, U. S. 42nd Division, AEF, wrote a letter home to his folks on 22 September 1918. His letter states, in part:

"I'm glad I had a chance to join the 165th-it's a man's outfit, and it has done fine work over here. One of the German prisoners, who met us here and at Chateau-Thierry, but did not realize we were at both places, said that America had only two good divisions - the 42nd and the Rainbow. He didn't know they were one and the same. I won't ask for any better men than the Irish in the 69th (165th). They are a hard hitting, dare devil bunch, very religious, afraid of nothing, and sworn enemies of the Boche. The regiment lost heavily at Chateau-Thierry - my company alone had 110 wounded and 36 killed outright - and every man has a 'buddy' to avenge. Lord help the Boche who gets in the way of the 'old 69th.' We are told to treat prisoners as approved by the war-that-was, when soldiers were less barbarous than they are now. After every action we see or hear of mutilation of our men - and there's many a German who suffers for every one American so treated. I don't mean he is mutilated - no American stoops that low - but I do mean that he grows daisies where, if his colleagues had been a bit more human, he might have been getting a good rest in an American prison camp.
Now I'll really stop - perhaps I should have stopped before writing this last paragraph, but it's said, so it stands." 7

Editor's note: As an officer Phelps was privileged to censor his own writing. An enlisted man, however, concerned about censorship, might have hesitated to write that 'after every action' soldiers found 'mutilation of our men' or to suggest that American soldiers killed German prisoners in reprisal. Boche is the French derogatory slang term for German soldiers during World War I.

In defense of the 'Rainbow' Division's behavior on the battlefield, here is a letter I received in 1997 from Clark Jarrett, grandson of Paul Jarrett, a lieutenant in the 166th Infantry Regiment. Clark Jarrett telephoned his grandfather (at his age of 101 years) and transcribed his father's conversation:

""I appreciated your letter very much. I did as you requested...I called my grandfather the night after I received your letter. We had a very good phone call. I read him your exact words and took notes during our conversation. Here is what he had to say:

"I never saw or heard of anything about atrocities in the Rainbow. I can say that the 165th (New York) was not prepared to go to the front when the entire division was ready. I heard personally that the "165th was not fit for service." They were considered playboys, not soldiers. My regiment, the 166th, served with the 165th as the 83rd Brigade. At the Second Battle of the Marne (Battle of the Champagne) I was informed by messenger that I should be aware of my left flank, as the Germans had entered the trenches of the 165th. I put my binoculars to my eyes and I saw that there was trench fighting going on down to my left. Thank God that the Germans did not break through. But I was aware that they might at any moment. After that, the 165th performed as well as any other unit in the Rainbow.

As for the 167th Alabama...the only time I every saw or heard of anything unusual was at Camp Mills, Long Island, New York, when we were in training to go to Europe. One night, we were called out to separate the 167th from a Negro unit. Apparently the white soldiers really got upset that black soldiers were in the division. Anyway, we had to part the two units...but I didn't see any specific violence. I heard that there was a pretty good fight going before we got there. It was the 167th I was going to help when I got my knee fractured during the fighting at the Ourcq River.""

I hope this will give you another piece of the puzzle, David. I quizzed him really hard about the facts. He, as you know, has a wonderful memory, and will not [I repeat] not, go along with anything, nor any memory of someone else just to satisfy that person. He will tell it just exactly the way it was."" 8

"On the fourth day, when the 69th and the Alabama continued to hold, the French general [Gouraud] said, "Well, I guess there is nothing for me to do but fight the war out where the New York Irish want to fight it." 9

Author of The Last Hero, Wild Bill Donovan, Anthony Cave Brown, tells us:

"And, Donovan was to admit, the Micks took no prisoners. "The men, "he wrote," when they saw the Germans with red crosses on one sleeve and serving machine guns against us, firing until the last minute, then cowardly throwing up their hands and crying "Kamerad," became just lustful for German blood. I do not blame them." Later when WJD [William J. Donovan] was required to sit in judgement on the German officers' corps for its conduct in World War II, he recalled this incident, realized that if World War I had gone the wrong way, he might have been arrested for having committed war crimes, and he refused to prosecute." 10
It is interesting to note that, during the fighting along the Ourcq River, and after the Champagne-Marne Defensive Campaign, the U. S. 42nd Division evidently again became involved with the matter of battlefield atrocities. We read as follows in Anthony Cave Brown's book entitled, The Last Hero, Wild Bill Donovan:

"In the fighting the Micks again began to kill their prisoners, and Donovan recorded: "Out of the 25 I was able to save only 2 prisoners, the men killed
all the rest." 11

Editor's comment: "Micks" is an ethnic slang expression for the Irish-Americans. Once again we have the situation where an officer in the AEF is able to write just about any comment at all to the home folks. One speculates as to what the average enlisted soldier would have written, had he been permitted to do so. Major General William J. Donovan, commander of the 165th (formerly 69th ) Infantry Regiment during World War I, was later to become the founder of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and "father" of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

Going back to the 167th Infantry Regiment (formerly 4th Alabama), Professor James J. Cooke, author of The Rainbow Division in the Great War, informs the author that:

"The matter of the atrocities concerned mainly the 167th Infantry and I was very concerned with it because of the investigation conducted by the HQ, AEF. There had been problems with the 167th being very aggressive in combat. But, when I searched for references in German papers, like you, I found none. It appeared that HQ got their information from reporters who simply heard rumors, etc. I do believe, however, that HQ was well aware of the hard fighting tendencies of units like the 167th and wanted to investigate quickly. I included the investigation mainly because it was HQ that ordered it done rather than from any German or poor sources. That is as far as I got when doing the Rainbow book. I did indeed research AEF records in RG 120 at National Archives II, especially the JAG [Judge Advocate General] and G2 [Intelligence] records, but found, like you, a brick wall as far as the origins of the reported atrocities. By the way, when I ran across "condemned" sources it was usually for reporters and reports that were not run through Pershing's staff. As you know Pershing and his staff at Chaumont did everything possible to control the press." 12

The soldiers of the 4th Alabama National Guard Regiment (167th of the U. S. 42nd Division) seem to have been a rather different 'breed of cat.' Many of them were backwoodsmen, avid hunters and crack rifle shots. It is said that many of them brought their personal Bowie knives over to France and that they used them in battle. 13

In a letter to the home folks, Ambulance Corps driver George Ruckle wrote, in part: "The Germans call us barbarians, they don't like the way we fight. When the boys go over the top or make raids they generally throw away their rifles and go to it with trench knives, sawed off shotguns, bare fists and hand grenades, and the Bosch doesn't like that kind of fighting. The boys from Alabama are particularly expert with knives and they usually go over hollering like fiends-so I don't blame the Germans for being afraid of them." 14

A young officer in the 42nd Division, made the observation in a letter home in early 1918 that, "the Alabamans, a rough, quick-tempered lot, always spoiling for a fight, lost their tempers." This comment was made in regards to an altercation between the men from Alabama and the French civilians.

Could the old adage that, "where there is smoke, there must be fire" apply here?
In placing all of these pieces of evidence of alleged battlefield atrocities committed by the U. S. 42nd Division on the scales of justice, how does it all weigh out? In the opinion of this historian, the 'Rainbow' Division probably stands guilty of some extremely aggressive battlefield behavior during World War I. It is also my distinct impression that the investigation conducted by AEF HQ was a total whitewash.

Americans are loathe to accept the idea that their soldiery, in any war, either enjoy killing their enemies or are capable of committing war crimes of any sort and specifically battlefield atrocities against enemy soldiers or civilians. Americans are always so shocked and horrified whenever their soldiers act (or react) like anyone else in the world, as if "our boys" occupy a moral high ground unique on the planet. But, if one is to be true to historical fact, one must accept the idea that American soldiers have not always behaved honorably on the battlefield. There is ample testimony to this effect from World War I, World War II, Korea, (e.g., the incident at the tunnel at No Gun Ri in 1950, where a number of civilians were allegedly massacred by American soldiers) Vietnam (e.g., the Mylai incident, where Vietnamese civilians were allegedly massacred under the command of Lt. William Calley), and from Iraq, where all too frequently some of our fighting forces are accused of having shot unarmed prisoners, or having tortured them in prison.

In coming down to the year of 2005, we have Marine Corps Lt. General James N. Mattis, known as "Mad Dog Mattis" to the troops he led in Afganistan and Iraq, publicly stating that "It's a lot of fun to fight, you know. It's a hell of a hoot. It's fun to shoot some people. I'll be right up front with you. I like brawling." The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen. Mike Hagee said, in part, "While I understand that some people may take issue with the comments made by him, I also know he intended to reflect the unfortunate and harsh realities of war." 15

The murder of surrendering prisoners is not unique to World War I. That has been a barbarous practice in all wars. However, one aspect of World War I fighting has been perhaps neglected; perhaps the murder of surrendering prisoners was more common in that brutal war than we would like to believe.

While brave, kindly and charitable acts also characterized World War I, we should not forget that it also produced its share of battlefield atrocities. A certain de-sensitization about the value of human life may be necessary to cope in the stress of performing a job that requires killing, a cold mentality that must be kept on the battlefield.

Perhaps the best tribute to fighting ability of the Guardsmen of the Rainbow Division came from their enemies. In a study made in post-war days, the German High Command considered eight American divisions especially effective; six of those were those of the much maligned "militia" or National Guard! When the German soldiers were asked which American combat division they most feared and respected, the reply was always, "the 42nd", and "the Rainbow." For some reason the Germans never made the distinction. 16

Editor's note: On German opinion of the 42nd Div., see e.g., The United States Army in the World War, XI, 410, 412-13; Thomas, History of the A.E.F., 221.

George Pattullo, a World War I correspondent for the periodical Saturday Evening Post, and accredited to American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in France in 1918, wrote as follows in his article entitled, "The Inside Story of the A.E.F.," May 6, 1921:

"Just as it is impossible for an individual to view his family's relations with outsiders impartially, so it is beyond the capacity of nationals of one country to see anything except their own side in dealing with other nations. The tendency to attribute base motives and double dealing to a rival is universal; on the other hand, everything that one's own country does is great and noble and of pure purpose. And of course an enemy is always a scoundrel.

The extremes to which this sort of thinking will drive people are often laughable. I remember two nice old ladies from New England stopping a returned war correspondent on Fifth Avenue to question him about certain stories they had heard of war prisoners in German hands.

"Was it true that the Germans prodded prisoners with bayonets and kicked them, too, to make them walk faster?"
"Well, war's a tough game," answered the correspondent who was a bit fed up with
the whole business.
"It's dog eat dog, and every army has men in it who go in for rough stuff.

You have to, in a fight!"
"Oh!" gasped the ladies, all aflutter, "But not our boys!
They're too noble." 18
Howard V. O'Brien, an AEF officer stationed in Paris, wrote an illuminating statement in his 1918 diary:
"Acquaintance growing up among different regions of U.S. Oregon reg't and

outfit from Boston on same ship. Mass. boys at first dubious of "wild" Westerners-which had highest percentage of college men and generally bien élevé of any outfit I've seen. Most refractory bunch yet encountered, from Alabama. Pistol toters. G.O. [general order] ruled rods out. After that, all scrapping Marquis of Queensberry, and several good lickings helped." 19

Victor L. Hicken, in his book The American Fighting Man, states:

"As far as the fear of the German soldier for the American soldier in 1917

was concerned, there is some basis for this contention. A French officer, observing the Yanks, wrote: "He arrived a born soldier....I think the Germans are afraid of him." Rumor spread behind the German lines that it didn't pay to fight well against the Americans; for they seldom allowed the Germans to surrender after putting up a stiff fight. One American regimental history, that of the "Rainbow Division," substantiates this possibility by claiming that its men "fought to kill," and that few prisoners were usually taken. Indeed, the facts on the "Rainbow Division" show that, for the amount of fighting the division did, very few prisoners were taken." 20

A German is reported to have said:

"I did not meet the Americans on the battlefields but I have talked with German soldiers who did. These soldiers were against the Rainbow Division near Verdun and said they don't want such fighting as they encountered there. The Americans were always advancing and acted more like wild men than soldiers." 21

In Americans in Battle, we read:

"An historian of the Rainbow Division admits that its men fought to kill, an admission borne out by the mere 1,317 prisoners taken by the division." 22

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THE GRAND CANAL by Henry James
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UNTER DEN LINDEN by Paul Lindau
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THE COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM

This meeting of apostles and presbysters described in Acts 15:4-9 was convoked to address the relationship of Jews and Gentiles in the church. Jewish Christians believed that Gentile believers had to submit to the law as well as their faith in Jesus. Paul, Barnabas, and others were sent to present the case. Paul, aware of the gravity of the crisis, took Titus, a native Greek, as a living specimen of what the Spirit of God could accomplish without circumcision. The decision of the great council was significant (Acts 15:28-29). It decided that the law, which had been impossible for Jews, should not be required of Gentiles. They need not be circumcised before eventually becoming a Christian. The principal at stake was incarnation, translating the Gospel in the mindset of the people. An example in Church history in which this principle was ignored was the spread of Christianity by the British in my country, Sierra Leone. The people resented the activities of the missionaries who were identified as part of the colonial government. The results were catastrophic. In the 1898 rebellion, white missionaries, African males (who wore trousers) and women (who wore skirts) were brutally murdered. Places of worship were desecrated. Like the Crusades, this rebellion furnishes the perfect reminder that the church can win by the message of peace and not by force. This principle was however adopted by Patrick, the Englishman captured and sold into slavery in Ireland who escaped and eventually became priest. It had tremendous impact. In the 5th century, he converted the Irish to the faith they had so freely defended throughout the centuries. In sympathy with the realities of Irish life, he was able to bring Ireland into closer relations with the rest of the western church. He planted over two hundred congregations and baptized over one hundred thousand converts.

THE COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON (451)

If the fathers of the 4th century quarreled over the relations between God the Father and God the Son, those of the 5th century faced the problem of defining the relationship of the two natures, the human and the divine within God the Son, Jesus Christ. The Christological controversy stemmed from the rival doctrines of Apollinaris (Word-Flesh) and Theodore of Mopsuestia (Word-Man), representatives of the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch respectively. Word-Flesh Christology generally held that the divine and human natures were united indistinguishably. This single divine nature (extreme Monophysitism) after the Incarnation, was strongly supported by Eutcyches. Word-Flesh Christology was not in consonance with Word-Man Christology since the latter taught the two natures co-existed separately in Christ. Cyril of Antioch condemned the extreme Antiochene Christology taught by Nestorius viewing the man Jesus an independent person beside the Divine Word. Pope Leo''s Tome (response to Flavian, the archbishop of Constantinople in 449) addressed these opposing perspectives by avoiding their extremities as reflected in the teachings of Eutyches and Nestorius. He noted that Christ was fully human and fully divine, two natures united in one person. Mary conceived and gave birth to Him without the loss of her virginity. The Tome played a very significant role at the Council of Chalcedon (451) which was convoked to resolve this doctrinal controversy. Leo''s view was accepted as the orthodox doctrine of the church. His statement of the place of the bishop of Rome in the church established doctrinal basis for the papacy. Although he was not pleased with Canon 28 which dignified Constantinople, his view that Jesus was a single person with two natures has remained the standard formulation of the doctrine of Christ in most branches of Christianity.

CHRISTENDOM

Christendom, the centuries-long period of western history, which could be regarded as a medieval synthesis, fused what could be presently regarded as separate sacred and secular spheres of life. It was the era in European history when the interests of both church and society were considered to be the same. It was almost generally assumed that Christian spiritual realities were more fundamental than realities of the temporal world. The foundation of Christendom was terribly shaken by the French Revolution (a programme of deChristianization). Christendom shaped medieval Europe''s outlook on everyday life. With the exception of the most extreme Anabaptists, almost all Europeans embraced Christendom and believed it was natural for the Church'' sphere of influence to embrace every aspect of life. This was attributed to the central role of the church in the sacramental system as the agent through which the sacraments brought God''s grace to every stage of life. It shaped political life since the political sphere co-operated with the church in fulfilling its spiritual tasks. Learning was directed to be compatible with the teaching of the church. The economy was structured accordingly as it supports the church in its mission. Social conduct also imitated the patterns God has set for the church. In other words, the church offered a foundation for everything. In spite of its failure, Christendom was a powerful ideal. Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries greatly contributed to this understanding of Christianity. Its astonishing spread marginalized Christianity. Muslims moved into Spain and were stopped, as they were about to enter France. Christians were alarmed. Cities were incorporated into what became known as the Holy Roman Empire. It is fair to state that Christendom arose to control the expansion of Islam.

THE GREAT SCHISM

The symbolic date for the separation between the Eastern Church (Constantinople) and the Western Church (Rome) is 1054. Different temperament and intellectual disposition between contemporary theologians like Tertullian of Carthage and Clement of Alexandria were traits that eventually represented the views of two distinct but complementary religious cultures. The Eastern Church sharply disagreed when the Western Church introduced into the Nicene Creed the doctrine that the Holy Spirit proceeds not from the Father alone ? the traditional view of the early Church Fathers ? but from the Father and the Son (Latin: filoque). When the Roman Empire divided into two zones, Latin speaking Rome began to claim superiority over Greek-speaking Constantinople; disputes arose over church boundaries and control, for example in Illyricum and Bulgaria. Rivalry developed in Slavic regions between Latin missionaries from the west and Byzantine from the east who considered the territory to be orthodox. Islam also strained relations. Other issues which ignited the friction related to worship and church discipline, for instance married clergy (Orthodox) versus celibacy (Roman Catholic) and rules of fasting. Tensions became a schism in 1054 when the uncompromising patriarch of Constantinople, Cerularius, and envoys of the uncompromising Pope Leo IX communicated each other. No acct of separation was considered at this time. Crusades, religious wars by Christians to rescue the Holy Land sealed the schism. The Fourth Crusade (1204) was diverted to attack and plunder Constantinople during which Orthodox Christians were murdered, and churches and icons desecrated. The Holy Land was not won. Islam was not permanently checked. The insolent action of popes in establishing Latin patriarchates in the east intensified the conflict.

EDINBURGH MISSIONARY CONFERENCE IN 1910

The ten-day Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910 ended the notion that worldwide Christianity meant reaching out from Europe and its North American extensions to the rest of the globe. It was indeed the last moment when it was equated with the Christianity of Europe and North America. Edinburgh was the beginning of a new era because it symbolized a dawning consciousness for the world wide extension of Christianity in contrast to earlier expansions involving single originating and receiving cultures. It was indeed a meeting to discuss the evangelization of the world (although only Protestants attended). It is important because of its ecumenical significance. Eight commissions or theological topics were addressed. These included carrying the gospel to all the Christian world, the church in the mission field, education in relation to the Christianization of national life, the missionary message in relation to non-Christian religions, the preparation of missionaries, home base of missions, missions and government, and the promotion of Christian unity. Missions were engaged globally and positively. The end of the conference marked the dawn of the request. Edinburgh directly or indirectly led to the establishment of the International Missionary Conference, the Universal Christian Conference on Life and Work, and the World Conference on Faith and Order. The last two merged in 1948 to create the World Council of Churches and the number of Christians has sky-rocketed from less than ten million in 1900 to almost two hundred million in 1997. Local indigenization is produced results. The rise and spread of Pentecostalism, the integral role of women missionaries, proliferation of Bible translations, the implications of information technology, to name a few, point to world evangelism.

70

From the perspective of the course, the above date is significant because it saw the fulfilment of the Great Commission as a result of the fall of Jerusalem. The church was ''weaned'' from Judaism as a result of the destruction of the Jewish temple and the cessation of sacrifices, an integral part in Jerusalem worship. This was a turning point because Christianity moved outward and metamorphosed from a religion shaped by the Jewish environment into a faith moving toward universal significance in the Mediterranean and beyond. It took an independent path in the Gentile world.

325

The Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of the Christian Church which was called by Constantine I to solve the problem created by Arianism, a heresy first proposed by Arius of Alexandria that affirmed that Christ is not a divine but created being. The absolute equality of the Son with the Father was established. It is considered a turning point because it set Christianity on a course (the addition of concerns for worldly power to its natal concern for the worship of God) it has only begun to reluctantly relinquish. This was directed by Constantine''s conversion that gradually gave way to the pilgrim reality of the church. In other words, the doctrinal declaration and the alteration of the church''s relationship with the world were unique.

451

It was at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 convoked to resolve the doctrinal controversy between Antioch and Alexandria over the person of Christ that the fathers accepted the formula proposed by Pope Leo I that Jesus was one person consisting of two natures. The significance was the more stable institutional character given to the church. It was significant because of its clarification of orthodox Christian teaching and the way in which that clarification was accomplished. The three fold triumph ? sound doctrine over the error over the error of the church, Christian catholicity over cultural fragmentation and of discriminating theological reasoning over the anti-intellectual dismissal of philosophy and a theological capitulation of philosophy ? conspire to make Chalcedon a turning point.

1054

The long-standing controversy between the Western and Eastern Church came to a head in 1054 when Pope Leo IX and the Greek Patriarch, Michael Cearularius, broke off relations with an exchange of anathemas. Although friction was ignited by events way back to the early church history and sealed by later events like the Crusades, the Great Schism of 1054 marked by the symbolic date of the separation. It was regarded as a turning point because it brought to a head centuries of deteriorating cultural disengagement, ecclesiastical suspicion and theological differences between the east and the west, symbolising the eventual isolation of the eastern churches through the centuries.

1521

Would the ''wild boar'' recant at the Diet of Worms in 1521? Bound by the Scriptures and with the conscience captive to the Word of God, Luther did not. What a significant moment in the history of Protestantism when Europe and the church would never be the same. Luther''s life and main doctrines, including the theology of the cross, were very crucial. This was not because of his spiritual credentials but rather the vision of God which gripped him to communicate through sermons, tracts and treatises. In other words, 1521 or related events represented a turning point as a result of Luther''s work in the broader social and cultural changes in the work in the 16th century. Although some aspects of his life were not illumined by the Divine Logos, Luther''s vision of God was timely and correct.

1534

Caesaropapism (doctrine of state control over the church) was evident when the English Parliament passed an Act of Supremacy, the significance of which could be seen in the lasting alteration of the situation of the Church of England. As the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England, Henry VIII''s marriage with Catherine of Aragon was annulled, enabling him to marry Anne Boleyn. The break from Rome effected by the support of the archbishop of Canterbury and the English Parliament was a turning point because of the general effect of England in particular and Christianity in general. There was an evident rise of self-consciously local, particular and national forms of Christianity. Although it was not the intention of the first Protestants to break up western Catholicism, there were small-scale alternatives to the universal Catholic Church. In other words, protests against the Catholic Church led to the Protestant churches, which subsequently opened various roads to reform eventually bringing a multiplicity rather than a unified voice against Catholic error.

1540
The founding of the Jesuits in 1540 could be regarded as significant because it was the most remarkable factor in the Catholic reform and worldwide outreach. The role of the Jesuits in winning Protestant regions back to Rome and solidifying those who swung like a pendulum in their loyalty to the Catholic Church cannot be overemphasized. The enduring effects of mid 16th century reform of the Catholic Church, the founding of the new orders, redirection of the papacy and Council of Trent could be regarded as branches of a major turning point because of the lasting effects on world Christianity. Catholic reform inspired a wide range of practicalized steps that ushered in a translation of the world wide potential of Christianity by restating the Christian message in the custom of the people.

1738

The conversion of the Wesleys in 1738 is significant because it was the most dynamic force in transforming the religion of the Reformation into modern Protestant evangelicalism. It is evident that Pietism (a movement originating in the Lutheran Church that stressed personal piety or reverence for God over religious formality and orthodoxy) and early Methodism were part of a larger movement of renewal. This new piety was a turning point because doctrines of God''s grace that had grown stale in the English church were renewed or revamped. This renewal or revitalization gave rise to modern evangelicalism out of the legacy of Reformation Protestantism.

1789

The secular event, the French Revolution of 1789, is significant because it ushered in actions which struck at the very privileges of status of the Roman Catholic Church. In attempting to remodel the world, the National Assembly passed ambitious laws which faded the supernatural God in French life. It was a turning point because it embarked on a programme of violent deChristianization signalling the gradual decline of Christendom (the period when interests of church and society were regarded as the same in Europe).

1910

Even though Catholics were not invited, the significant ten-day Edinburgh Missionary Conference (a faith for the entire world) could be regarded as the beginning of the twentieth century ecumenical movement, a high tide of western missionary expansion. It was a turning point because it symbolized an awakened consciousness concerning the worldwide extension of the faith. Never again would ''world wide Christianity'' be equated with the Christianity of Europe and America. Earlier expansions of Christianity generally involved single originating and single receiving cultures. The trend became indigenization of Christianity in countless regional cultures.

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Downtown St. Paul Minnesota - Fun Things to Do in Saint Paul MN

Visiting downtown St. Paul? If so, there are many fun things that you can do, no matter what season you decide to visit the area. You'll find that there are excellent St. Paul event no matter the time of year, and you'll be sure to find fun activities that the entire family can enjoy all year long. From the St. Paul Winter Carnival, going to see the Minnesota Wild, or even participating in Grand Old Days, in downtown St. Paul, MN there is no lack of great things to do. Here are just a few of the fun things to do in the city of St. Paul that you are sure to enjoy.

St. Paul Winter Carnival
If you happen to enjoy getting involved in winter events, St. Paul is the place to be. When it comes to St. Paul events, the St. Paul Winter Carnival is one of the most well known events. The very first Winter Carnival was held back in 1886, and since then they have had this celebration each year. At the first Carnival they had, there was a huge ice castle and they included ice horse racing and bobsledding as just a few of the fun activities that were held during the event. Today the St. Paul Winter Carnival is bigger and better than ever. A royal family is elected to be in the parade, and some of the great activities that are available for kids include the Grand Day Parade, the Royal Coronation, a Pow Wow, ice sculpture carving, and Klondike Kate Caberets to name a few. Since 1952, there has also been a Treasure Hunt held each year during the carnival as well. The search is for a medallion, and the ones who find it usually get a cash prize.

See the Minnesota Wild
In downtown St. Paul, you also have the option to go see the Minnesota Wild play when they are in season. They are the professional ice hockey team and they are based right out of St. Paul. The Minnesota Wild first began to play back in 2000 and since their beginning, every home game has been sold out at the Xcel Energy Center in St. Paul. Just a few of the players on the team include Eric Belanger, Andrew Brunette, Marian Gaborik, Josh Harding, Kim Johnsson, Nick Schultz, Eric Reitz, Thomas Mojzis, and Marek Zidlicky.

Grand Old Days
When it comes to St. Paul events, another one that you won't want to miss is the Grand Old Days. The Grand Old Days event is an event that celebrates the first rites of spring in downtown St. Paul. There is a parade that occurs on Grand Avenue that is full of great floats and much more. You'll also find that there is live music during the event as well as art cars that you can enjoy seeing as well. Sporting events occur during this time as well dog competitions, competitions for the strongest woman and man, street performances, and many other great events as well. The restaurants and stores that are located on Grand Avenue are open during the big event, so you can do some shopping, and get food and drink if you need it as well. Parking can be difficult to find during the Grand Old Days, so you may want to park a ways away and then ride a bus into the city for the event.

Visit the Summit Brewery
The Summit Brewery is an excellent place to visit in downtown St. Paul, MN. For more than 150 years, there has always been some kind of a brewery in the city of St. Paul and today it is the Summer Beer Brewery that is there. The brewery is fully functional and you can easily get a free tour of the brewery. This is a great adventure for the entire family.

Check Out St. Paul Cathedral
You'll definitely want to check out the St. Paul Cathedral if you are visiting downtown st. Paul. Whether you are Catholic or not, you'll definitely want to take the time to see and explore the incredible architecture of this magnificent building. No doubt you'll appreciate and enjoy seeing the design of the building, especially the domes. One of the domes of the cathedral actually is covered with a variety of murals that were painted about 150+ years ago by hand. People from across the world have come to see this beautiful cathedral, and they have never been disappointed. Since the cathedral is also located on a high hill, it gives you a great view of the entire city. You won't have to pay a thing to tour the St. Paul Cathedral either, so it is a free place for you and the family to visit.

The Children's Museum
For those who have children, visiting the Children's Museum, located in downtown St. Paul, MN is an excellent idea. There are great activities for children available that help kids learn more about nature and science as well. One area of the museum even teaches kids about a variety of careers. The fee to visit the museum is reasonable, and it is a great outing for the entire family.

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Vinyl Records Budget Box Vinyl

High value records don't always equate to high quality music, surely many collectors have been disappointed when finally getting there hands on a 500 pound holy grail, only to find the music average and uninspiring.

Frequent visitors to record fairs will be aware of the abundance of bargain boxes, "Everything For 1.00 pound ", "Two For A Fiver" and so on. Trawling through boxes of cheap vinyl can often be rewarding, with classic albums of the last 40 years sandwiched between brass bands and budget compilations.

The aim of this exercise is to build a collection of quality albums, music at the top of its genre, groundbreaking, or simply remarkable from start to finish.

In reality the price of some items will vary between fairs and dealers but I have tried to include albums that can be regularly found between 1 pound and 4 pound.

I have steered clear of internet sales because of varying quality and postage costs.

Of course you may disagree with many of my choices and yes music is subjective and a matter of personal taste.

Some albums simply sell time and time again or are highly regarded for there style or musicality and this I have drawn upon in my selection.

Feel free if you wish to replace some of my selections with your own.

Along side each item I have attached a star rating, five for the most abundant and easy to acquire, fewer stars for those items that might take a little longer to track down.

This is an ongoing project my object to compile an extensive library of value vinyl.

So now it is time to begin building your collection.

Box 5. Article Summary

1. Fleetwood Mac 'Rumours' - World wide sales of almost 30 million will guarantee this item turning up at your local fair and almost certainly numerous copies can be found in bargain boxes throughout the nation. Fleetwood Mac's transformation from a classic blues outfit to one of the most successful rock and pop groups of the 70s and 80s is mainly down to this high profile album. Most of us who originally owned this album played both sides relentlessly and then grew tired with over exposure. But with thirty years behind it the album with its strong collective of song writing and musicianship guarantees nearly everyone's return. *****

Comments - Songbird covered by various artists. The Chain Grand Prix music. A version on white vinyl exists.

Other albums by this artist / group: Tango in the night, Tusk

2. Roxy Music 'For Your Pleasure' - Roxy Music's second album with its eclectic mix of musicians and broad musical influence is often lorded by lovers of progressive rock. This view is probably confirmed by the presence of the glorious nine minute romp "Bogus Man". The often strange combination of Brian Ferry's fifties throwback warbling and Eno's modernistic sensibility created a unique sound If you are familiar with Roxy Music through there commercial success of such albums as Avalon, this is a significantly darker and more challenging experience. ***
Comments -"Every Dream Home a Heartache" is the only track I am aware of that tells the tale of an inflatable sex doll.

First issues of this album on the pink rimmed Island label with the original laminated gatefold sleeve go for around 15 pounds but you can regularly come across later issues for much less.

Other albums by this artist / group - Roxy Music, Country Life, Stranded, Siren, Flesh And Blood, Avalon. All of the Roxy Music albums can be found regularly within the budget box price range.

3. U2 'Unforgettable Fire' - U2 vinyl albums are abundant but I have chosen " The Unforgettable Fire" to go onto our list.With their new production team Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois the band might have some of the edge present on previous albums but the carefully crafted songs on this album have made this a favorite for many of there loyal fans. The album is chock full of classic tracks such as Bad, Wire, Pride, A Sort Of Homecoming and the title track. Vinyl issues of this album come in a quality textured sleeve and clean copies can be found for no more than a few pounds. *****

Comments - Lots of copies of this item turn up so be patient and get yourself a nice clean copy.

Other albums by this artist / group: Boy, Joshua Tree, War. October Under a Blood Red Sky. There are many U2 collectables and there later albums which sold in smaller numbers on vinyl are generally out of our budget price. But the earlier aforementioned classic albums are regularly accessible within our budget.

4. Ultravox 'Vienna' - One of the albums that defines the 80s new romantic era. After the departure of John Foxx, Ultravox must have felt insecure about there future instead with there new singer Midge Ure they created one of the defining songs of the 80s, Vienna. This album because of its commonality is often passed over, the public often forgetting Vienna is now nearly 30 years old and a landmark album. *****

Comments - A perfect starting point for your New Romantic collection.

Other albums by this artist / group: Quartet, Monument, Rage in Eden.

5. Lloyd Cole 'Rattlesnakes' - Coles Debut album was successful on release and gained in stature as a highly regarded exercise in singer songwriting. Intelligent lyrics and a classic folky background have assured this album has a longevity which many of its counterparts have failed to achieve. ***

Comments - Often overlooked as just another commercial pop record of the eighties this album offers much more.

Other albums by this artist / group: Easy Pieces.

6. Kate Bush 'Hounds Of Love' - It was a toss up between "A Kick Inside" and my chosen album by this highly individual artist and although her debut album has 'Wuthering Heights', one of those few records which seemed entirely unique yet achieved remarkable chart success, it is the beautiful atmosphere of "The Hounds Of Love" which by a small edge led me to choose this album. 'Running up That Hill' is probably the most well known track from the record but 'Cloudbusting' for me embodies the sentiment of the album. ****

Comments - Bushes long awaited 2005 album Ariel was also released as a quality vinyl package.

Other albums by this artist / group: Kick Inside, Never For Ever, Lion Heart, Dreaming. All these albums can be found for 3 pounds and under.

7. ZZ Top' Eliminator' - The fans who had followed them from the early blues orientated days might see this album as the bands point of sell out but you cannot ignore the impact this album had particularly on the MTV generation. In 1983 it was almost impossible to turn on your television without been confronted by the supped up dragster that fills the front cover of the album. "Gimme All your lovin', Legs and Sharp Dressed Man" were all massive hits with there often raunchy videos. *****

Comments - This album has great art work and because of its enormous sales can easily be purchased for a 1 pound. There early albums on the London label usually sell for around 15 pounds but you can pick up much cheaper reissues. 'Afteburner' the follow up to Eliminator can also be found at 1 pound or just over.

Other albums by this artist / group: Afterburner

8. Eagles 'Hotel California' - The Eagles are one of those bands because of there enormous album sales provide great value for money on vinyl. Hotel California is the Eagles most commercially successful album moving in a more rock orientated direction than its previous counterparts. The title track has one of the greatest and most widely recognized solos in music history, drawing the track out to about seven minutes. ****

Comments - A very strong consistent album throughout. The early albums are finely crafted country rock influenced by such artists as Gram Parsons or the Byrds. All of these albums can be found for a few pounds.

Other albums by this artist / group - Eagles, Desperado, One Of These Nights.

9. Jon And Vangelis 'Friends Of Mr. Cairo' - Jon Andersons ethereal vocals and Vangelis's rich textures compliment beautifully. The album begins with two finely crafted pop songs "Find My Way Home" and State Of Independence", but it is the extended title track an homage to the classic film era which holds the albums real magic. ***

Comments - Background projector sounds and the voice of Peter Lorry add to the wonderful atmosphere of this album.

Other albums by this Artists / group: Private Collection.

10. Police 'Reggatta De Blanc' - This album stayed in the top 100 for more than a year so no problem acquiring a copy. Its longevity not surprising when you ponder its superb track listing "Message in a Bottle", Walking On The Moon", "The Beds To Big Without You" all with the reggae undertones which would become the bands trademark. *****

Comments - Lots of colour vinyl picture sleeve singles by the Police can be found for as little as 50p.

Other albums by this artist / group: Outlandos D'Amour, Zenyatta Mondatta, Ghost In The Machine, Synchronicity. You can confidently pick up originals of the first five please albums for under a tenner.

11. Simon & Garfunkel 'Bookends' - CBS's numerous reissues of Simon & Garfunkels's 60s albums give the punter plenty of opportunity to pick up there early catalogue for a song. With a rich choice of albums which would meet our criteria I have based my selection simply on personal preference. For me Bookends although only 30 minutes long breaks out of the folky influence of previous albums, explores a wide diversity of styles but manages maintain its continuity. ***

Comments - Reissues on the later Sunburst CBS label can be found with Simon & Garfunkel's entire early back catalogue but you can also find earlier issues on the orange label for a very reasonable price. Original 60s issues with flip back sleeve and textured labels in perfect condition can pass hands for around 30 pounds.

Other albums by this artists / group: Sounds Of Silence, Parsley Sage Rosemary And Thyme, Bridge Over Troubled Waters, Wednesday Morning 3am.

12. Bob Seger 'Stranger In Town' - If your passion is for all American artists such as Bruce Springsteen and the Eagles and you appreciate quality song writing then this album will satisfy your needs. "Hollywood Nights" is a suitably rousing track to start proceedings but it is the super ballad" We've Got Tonight" which has become best known and covered by such artist as Kenny Rogers and Ronan Keating. **

Comments - Hollywood Nights was released as a picture sleeve silver vinyl single.

Other albums by this artist / group: Stranger In Town, Against The Wind, Nine Tonight Live.

13. Jean Michel Jarre 'Oxygene' - It's hard to believe this album is over 30 years old, created in the same year as the beginning of the punk revolution and at the tale end of the progressive rock era the album with its long extended instrumental tracks surprisingly achieved stratospheric success. The swirling electronic sounds are different from the mainstream of the period yet the album managed to be accessible to the masses. *****

Comments - HMV released a box set of the album on LP in 1988 limited to 3,300 only this sells for around 15.00 pounds.

Other albums by this artist / group: Equinoxe, Rendez Vous.

14. Dire Straits' Love Over Gold' - Probably not an obvious choice with multi million seller 'Brothers in Arms' and the first album containing guitar anthem 'Sultans of Swing' as strong contenders. But this album contains lots of musicality and thoughtful composition. The album contains Dire Straits longest ever track 'Telegraph Road' and song about the rise and fall of industrialism 'Rock "n" Roll. *****

Comments - The track 'Pivate Investigator' reached number two and was kept off the top slot by Survivor 'Eye of the Tiger'.

Other albums by this artist / group: Dire Straits, Making Movies, Communique, Alchemy, Brothers In Arms. All of these albums can be found for has little as a few pounds.

15. Eric Clapton '461 Ocean Boulevard' - An original copy of Creams Disraeli Gears with its vivid art work and original blend of psychedelic blues rock can fetch up to fifty or sixty pounds. So it seems surprising that Clapton's solo albums don't usually fetch more than a few pounds. "461 Ocean Boulevard" is second solo project is a lot slicker than previous albums and concentrates on his now smooth vocal style. ***

Comments - Most of Claptons 70s and 80s solo albums can be easily found within our budget.

Other albums by this artist: Slowhand, Journeyman, Just One Night, Backless, EC Was Here.

16. Scorpions ' Lovedrive' - There is numerous rock albums available within our budget price most of these tend to be late seventies onwards. As most teenage boys who came across this album I found my self taking an unhealthy interest in its provocative cover. The album strengths are a combination of confident song writing, great guitarists and a very distinctive vocalist in the shape of Klaus Meine. ***

Comments - There is also a twelve inch EP from this album on green vinyl.

Other albums by this artist / group: Blackout, Virgin Killer, Crazy World, Tokyo Tapes. The earlier album Virgin Killer is a little harder to acquire but can be found with persistence.

17. Yes 'Closer To The Edge' - A definitive album of the progressive rock era "Closer To The Edge" for many epitomizes the complex, extended music associated with this genre. As well as Jon Andersons ethereal voice the liberal inclusion of the progressive musician's favorite, the Mellotron gives this album a rich and often beautiful sound. ****

Comments - Although early textured sleeve issues are now becoming collectable, later issues can regularly be found for around 2 pounds.

Other albums by this artist / group: Fragile, The Yes Album, 90125, Relayer Going For The One, Drama, Yes Songs, Yes Shows. Original copies of the first four albums on the plum Atlantic label are considerably more than our budget price but these albums were reissued relentlessly.

18. Stranglers 'Stranglers IV' - Punk related items can be a little harder to pick up below five pounds, but albums like "Stranglers IV" which sold to a broader audience are more easily acquired. Although this album is titled four it is in fact there debut album. A crunching base line, raw vocals mixed with a strong song writing sensibility make this a great choice for your vinyl collection. ***

Comments - The biggest selling and therefore easiest album to acquire by the band is "No More Heroes".

Other albums by this artist / group: No More Heroes, Aural Sculpture, Feline, Black And White. Black White also comes in a White Vinyl edition with a free single this sells for around 15 pounds.

19. Genesis 'The Lamb Lies Down On Broadway' - There are numerous Genesis albums I could include in our collection but I have chosen the "Lamb Lies Down On Broadway", a concept piece that bridges the musicianship of the progressive rock era with the raw energy of the new wave in the shape of Rael, Gabriels Urban antihero. Although other albums are far more representative of the Genesis legacy this epic double LP, for me is a masterpiece of its era. ***

Comments - Genesis are a highly collectible band with there first album "Genesis To Revelation" as a mono copy on the unboxed Decca label selling for up to 500 pounds.

Other albums by this artist / group: Trespass, Nursery Cryme, Foxtrot, Selling England By The Pound, Live, A Trick of the Tail, Seconds Out, And Then There Were Three, Wind And Wuthering, Duke, Three Sides Live, Invisible Touch, Duke. The first two Charisma albums are very collectible on the original pink scroll, but endless copies can be found on the later Mad Hatter Label.

20. Blondie 'Parallel Lines' - The bold stripes of "Parallel Lines" art work are instantly recognizable and Debbie Harry's drop dead good looks add to the classic album cover. This vinyl turns up in droves but is a constant seller with a new generation of vinyl enthusiasts. *****
Comments - Even more profuse than Blondie's albums are there 7 inch singles which turn up in abundance.

Other albums by this artist / group: Blondie, Eat to The Beat, Plastic Letters, Auto American, The Hunter.

21. Santana 'Abraxas' - If it's musicianship you desire then Santana are a strong candidate for your vinyl collection. Again with this band there are a number of contenders for this slot, Moonflower is a double album containing high octane live material and studio work such as there superb take of the Zombies classic "She's Not There", but the overriding choice has to be "Abraxas" right from the warm swell of its introduction to its classic cover of "Black Magic Women" this is an album which displays a perfect blend of both musical and commercial success. *****

Comments - If you want to explore Santana'strue musicianship then check out "Caravansarai", Jazz sensibility, swirling percussion, warm strings and of course Carlos's emotionally charged guitar combine for a truly exceptional musical journey.

Other Albums By This artist / group: Santana, Santana II, Santana III, Welcome, Borbaletta, Moonflower, Amigo, Festival, Inner Secrets, Zebop. Marathon.

22. Elton John 'Tumble Weed Connection' - Elton John is an international music star with an extensive back catalogue. The early DJM albums are both strong and consistent and were often packaged with booklets, posters and textured sleeves. My own personal Elton favorite is "Tumbleweed Connection". The music influenced by the American West follows in the footsteps of such albums as Dylans "John Wesley Harding" and although not exactly a concept album rewards best when played in its entirety. ****

Comments - It's all so worth pointing out that earlier issues when held up to the light have a red wax glow.

Other albums by this artist / group: Goodbye Yellow Big Road, Madman Across The Water, Honky Chateau, Captain Fantastic And The Brown Dirt Cowboy, Don't Shoot Me I'm Only The Piano Player, Caribou, Rock Of The Westies, Blue Movies.

23. Talking Heads 'Remain In Light' - Yet another wonderful LP produced by Brian Eno and although the group were previously known for there punk sensibility this album is filled with highly danceable funk orientated rhythms. Probably the most well known track from this album is "Once In A Lifetime" with it's ultra catchy chorus. ***

Comments - "Little Creatures" is the album which gave the Heads there real commercial success so therefore is probably the easiest to acquire.

Other albums by this artist / group: Speaking In Tongues, Fear Of Music, Little Creatures, Talking Heads 77, The Name Of The Band Is The talking Heads, True Stories, More Songs About Buildings And Food, Stop Making Sense, Naked.

24. Bad Company 'Bad Company' - Signed to Led Zeppelins Swan Song label this super group made up of ex members from Free, Mott The Hoople and King Crimson produced a superb debut album. Classic blues tinged rock including the immensely catchy "Can't Get Enough of Your Love". ***

Comments - The "Straight Shooter" album produced Bad Co's most radio friendly offering in the shape of the power ballad "Feel Like Making Love".

Other albums by this artist / group: Straight Shooter, Run With The Pack, Desolation Angels, Burning Sky, 10 From 6, Rough Diamonds.

25. Marrillion 'Misplaced Childhood' - Marrillion were at the forefront of the miniature progressive rock revival in the 1980s and although influenced by early Genesis developed a distinctive poetic style of there own. This album contains there most successful and well known song "Kayleigh" but is much more than a one single album with a continuous sweet which takes up nearly three quarters of the LP. *****

Comments - Although "Misplaced Childhood" is there most commercially successful album Marrillion fans often site "Fugazi" as the bands finest moment.

Other albums by this artist / group: Scrip For A Jesters Tear, Fugazi,Clutching At Straws, The Thieving Magpie, Reel To Reel.

26. Human League 'Dare' - Although the band had been around at the beginning of the new generation of electronic music, it was the introduction of two female backing vocalists that finally gave the group there definitive sound. For anybody who reached their teens during the early eighties the massive hit single "Don't You Want Me" supplies the soundtrack for those years. *****

Comments - This album turns up in droves so you are bound to get a bargain.

Other albums by this artist / group - Travelogue, Hysteria, Love And Dancing, Crash.

27. Journey 'Escape' - If you like your AOR power ballads then look no further. "Don't Stop Believin'" and "Whose Cryin'" are perfect examples of the smooth rock formula that became popular in the early eighties. Former Santana band members Gregg Rolie and Neil Schon formed the group in 1973 and the band have accumulated over 80 million sales worldwide. *****

Comments - Journey shared there huge AOR sales with bands like Reo Speed Wagon and Asia whose albums can also be found in relatively large numbers.

Other albums by these artist / group: Frontiers.

28. Madness 'One Step Beyond' - A product of the 2tone movement of 1979, this album as all the boyish and anarchic energy of large group of fun loving young men embarking on there first recording. ***

Comments - Numerous 7 and 12inch singles were produced by Madness and can often be found for as little as a 1 pound.

Other albums by this artist / group: Divine Madness, Absolutely, Presents The Rise And Fall, Mad Not Mad, Utter Madness.

29. UFO 'Strangers In The Night' - A constant flow of rock bands visited The Victoria Hall, Hanley in the early eighties of which I attended many. A lot of the acts proved disappointing live but UFO exceeded expectation with there superior musicianship and ability to take there studio tracks to an extra level when performed in front of an audience. "Strangers In The Night" is up there with Thin Lizzy's Live And Dangerous as one of the superior live performances captured on record from that era. ***

Comments - Also worth collecting by UFO is a number of Colour vinyl singles, all which can be picked up for as little as a pound.

Other albums by this artist / group: The Wild The Willing And The Innocent, Force It, No Place To Run, Making Contact, Obsession, Mechanix, Lights Out.

30. CAROL KING 'TAPESTRY' - Kings song writing skills are homed to perfection on this album with at least four all time classic tracks "I feel The Earth Move", "So Far Away", "You've Got A Friend" and "Natural Women". Most artists if they are lucky write one great song in there lifetime on this album Carol has left a legacy of standards which will continue to be covered by future artists. ****

Other albums by this artist / group: Songs Of Long Ago.

Comments - Original seventies album comes with a textured sleeve.

31. VAN MORRISON 'INTO THE MUSIC' - Although Morrison's late 60s early seventies output is generally regarded as his most intensely creative period, there are equally rewarding excursions on many of his later albums. Into The Music was released at the height of the Punk revolution and like many of the songwriter albums from that period tends to get lost in the excitement of the new musical revolution. Morrison's mood is perfectly summed up in the title of this album Van at times completely lost in the music he has created and for me the last three tracks are a sublime example of musical creativity. ***

Comments - Unfortunately some of Van Morrison's better albums prove difficult to acquire within our budget, the superb live album "To Late To Stop Now" normally selling for around 10 pounds. Astral Weeks and Moondance were both released as first issues on the Red Warner Bros label and command prices near 100 pounds but many reissues are available sometimes within our budget.

Other Albums by this artist / group: Easier to get within our budget price are Wavelength, Best Of, Inarticulate Speech Of The Heart, Poetic Champions Compose, Beautiful Vision, Live At The Grand Opera House. His first four albums on Warner Brothers can be acquired as reissues but sometimes difficult to find for under a fiver.

32. PRINCE 'PURPLE RAIN' - Although my record collection at the time of this albums release was primarily rock, like legions of others I felt compelled to buy Purple Rain on its release in 1984. The album brims with high octane funk, glittery rock guitar and hooks that most mere human artists would die for. Tracks like Let's Go Crazy, When Doves Cry and Purple Rain are superb songs that stay just on the right side of pomposity. *****

Comments - Look out for the rare purple vinyl version of this album.

Other albums by this artist / group: Love Sexy, Around The World In A Day, Under The Cherry Moon, Batman.

33. WEATHER REPORT 'HEAVY WEATHER' - For those venturing into the world of jazz fusion for the first time then Weather Reports Heavy Weather is a perfect starting point. The album is both accessible and challenging with jazz heavy weights Wayne Shorter and Joe Zawinul continuing ideas first explored with the Miles Davis group in the late 60s. The albums best known track Birdland as been covered by a number of artists including an acapella version by Manhattan Transfer. ***

Comments -Most albums by Weather Report usually sell for around £5 and above Heavy weather been the exception because of the quantity available.

Other albums by these artist / group: Black Market.

34. Jackson Browne 'Late For The Sky' - This mature and often subtle album with a distinctly American flavor grew out of a thriving US song writing movement. With intelligent lyrics, understated vocals and perfect accompaniment from guitarist David Lindley this album rewards the careful listener. **

Comments. - The title track is featured in Martin Scorcese's film Taxi Driver.

Other albums by this artist / group: Saturate before Using, The Pretender. (These albums are a little more difficult to acquire than the later release Late For The Sky).

35. PETER FRAMPTOM 'FRAMPTON COMES ALIVE' - A reference to the album on the US cult classic Wayne's World confirms Framptom Comes Alive's status in the American rock cannon. The double live album combines radio friendly acoustic ballads with epic guitar anthems all pulled from Frampton's career both solo and with previous band Humble Pie. *****

Comments - This album is famous for Frampton's some say excessive use of the guitar voice box.

Other albums by this artist / group: I'm In You.

36. BRUCE SPRINGSTEEN 'BORN IN THE USA' - The multi million seller album is crammed full of stadium rock tracks all performed with 100% commitment by the "Boss" of the US music industry. Although "Born In The USA" has become associated with American patriotism a closer scrutiny of the lyrics present a much bleaker version of US history with abandoned Vietnam heroes and prison gangs populating his stories. *****

Comments - A live box set can also be acquired for around 5 pounds to 10 pounds.

Other albums by this artist / group: The River, Born To Run, Darkness At The Edge Of Town, The Wild The Innocent And The E Street Shuffle, Tunnel Of Love, Lucky Town, Human Touch.

37. PAUL MCCARTNEY 'BAND ON THE RUN' - After two albums under the guise of Wings, MCcartney returned to recording under his own name with an album often regarded as his best work since the Beatles. The album has an uplifting start with the title track and "Jet" and manages maintain its consistency throughout. *****

Comments - Now is probably a good time to mention Beatles releases, with even reissues fetching around 5 pounds and more none of the original releases by the band can be acquired within our budget.

Other albums by this artist / group: McCartney, McCartney II, Ram, Red Rose Speadway, Give My Regards To Broadway Street. Venus And Mars, Wings At The Speed Of Sound, Wings Over America.

38. GARY NUMAN & TUBEWAY ARMY 'REPLICAS' - Tubeway Army's self titled first album was strongly inspired by the punk revolution it was not until there second release "Replicas" that Numan and band members found there real voice. Haunting Synth arrangements and a vocal style heavily influenced by Bowie, combine to make an original sound that richly exploited the technological advances of the day. *****

Comments - Numans most well recognized track "Cars" can be found on his other highly influential album from this period "The Pleasure Principle".

Other albums by this artist / group: Tubeway Army, The Pleasure Principle, Telekon. The bands first album can be a little more difficult to acquire with a blue vinyl version selling for around 40 pounds.

39. THIN LIZZY 'LIVE AND DANGEROUS' - Lizzy's classic studio album Jailbreak with its die cut gatefold sleeve and dynamic artwork came close as my first choice, but for sheer value for money and perhaps one of the greatest live albums in the rock genre "Live And Dangerous slips into pole position. Here already established classics "The Boys Are Back In Town" and"Jailbreak" are infused with a new sense of urgency when given the live treatment. ****

Comments - The double albums earlier issues came in a fully laminated gatefold sleeve.

Other albums by these artists group: Jailbreak, Johnny The Fox, Fighting, Black Rose, Bad Reputation, China Town, Night Life, Renegade.

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Love in Infant Monkeys: Stories

Love in Infant Monkeys: Stories Review

Lydia Millet has received a lot of praise for her work and is seen by many as one of the best writer's in the U.S. Stepping into her world for the first time with her collection of stories, Love in Infant Monkeys, shows a writer willing to take risks in her material. The collection revolves around animals, be they pets, circus elephants, or even the lions from the movie Born Free. Millet further layers the collection with real life celebrities or historical figures so in the course of the book we see David Hasselhoff, hear the musings of Madonna, learn of the religious leanings of Thomas Edison, and witness a confession from former President Jimmy Carter -- and there are more. Many of the stories are based on true stories of animals with famous people, although Millett takes artistic license and uses them as springboards.

The result is a strong, if uneven, collection with the famous names at times proving to be a distraction and at other times an annoyance. The book opens with Madonna pondering a range of ideas as she looks over a dying pheasant she has shot in "Sexing the Pheasant." The animal here serves as a catalyst for her thoughts, but the focus is on Madonna and her musings on celebrity life, her husband's friends, and her attempts to conquer English phrases. Madonna is such an easy target to make fun of that she is hardly worth the effort; this story could be written by some talented undergrads with a sense of humor.

Such entries are frustrating when you see Millet's skills in a story such as "Sir Henry," a moving tale of a dog walker who is forced beyond his dog world when he suddenly recognizes humanity which rises to the level of, well, dogs. Sir Henry, a dachshund, belongs to a famous performer, but this means nothing to the dogwalker. He likes the dog because of the dog itself, not any association. He walks the dog with "Blackie," who belongs to a dying violinist who asks the walker to take the dog after he dies, which by the violinist's own admission will be soon. The request goes against the walker's own protocol, but he is moved enough to consider it and begins to see the violinist and his caretaker in a new light. We do not hear the final decision, but it is the questioning which is enlightening. Toward the end of the story Millet reveals that Sir Henry's absent owner is David Hasselhoff, who bestows some glancing attention on the dog when he accidentally meets up with the walker in the park. The walker hears the excited reactions of those around him, but is clearly not moved by the connection. The question is, why throw this diversion in what is an otherwise strong story. Millet shifts the reader's attention in a way the dog walker himself escapes, and the rationale is not clear.

Millet does better with less "celebrity" people such as Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla. Although not as well known today, Tesla was a influential inventor who counts the radio among his creations. Millet focuses on his death as debt laden scientist living out his life in the Hotel New Yorker. Tesla develops a moving relationship with one of the maids, and the story is told from the viewpoint of another maid who knew both of them. In the story Tesla is devoted to pigeons who share his apartment, causing the maids to spend extra time with the man. Millet's building of the relationship is as light and touching as the relationship itself. That Tesla was famous does not impact the story significantly. Instead of celebrity watching we simply see humans at their best as they try to help one another. Millet has a gift for finding emphasizing the human emotion without cheapening it, in part because the animals serve as a foil to the human characters (and at times this is reversed).

Humor is also an important part of the collection, and is best seen in "Jimmy Carter's Rabbit," which takes on Carter's famous oar defense when a rabbit swam toward his boat at one point during his presidency. As a former President, Carter pays a surprise visit on a childhood friend who is now a psychologist. As children they were involved in an incident which caused the boy and his family to leave the town, and Carter has come to offer a belated apology. The humor comes as the psychologist tries to figure out Carter's real reason for visiting in what is a clearly an attempt not to focus on the incident Carter wants to discuss. A similar sense of avoiding reality shows up in "The Lady and the Dragon" where a billionaire Indonesian businessman purchases a Komodo dragon who had bitten Sharon Stone's husband at a zoo. The businessman hopes to use the animal to meet Stone, with whom he is obsessed, and when one of his employees cannot contact the real one he instead hires a sexually willing substitute.

The title story uses the real life experiments of Harold Harlow on monkeys as its basis. While Harlow is going against his colleagues in the 1950s and calling for mothers to be more loving, he gets his theories by isolating and thus torturing monkeys. While he claims no love for the monkeys, he pushes away his nightmares about the animals by drinking too much. With his own wife dying at home he spends all his time on his work, and the story ends with the nightmare of a mother monkey screaming for her baby. "He knew the feeling of loss that would last till she died."

Overall we can see Millet using the animals as a way for us to see ourselves differently. She shows a respect for animals most writers do not have by showing they are worthy of our attention as they are. In addition, as Millet any pet owner knows, animals often show us more about ourselves than we are comfortable knowing.

Love in Infant Monkeys: Stories Feature

• ISBN13: 9781593762520
• Condition: New
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Love in Infant Monkeys: Stories Overview

Lions, Komodo dragons, dogs, monkeys, and pheasants — all have shared spotlights and tabloid headlines with celebrities such as Sharon Stone, Thomas Edison, and David Hasselhoff. Millet hilariously tweaks these unholy communions to run a stake through the heart of our fascination with famous people and pop culture.

While in so much fiction animals exist as symbols of good and evil or as author stand-ins, they represent nothing but themselves in Millet’s ruthlessly lucid prose. Implacable in their actions, the animals in Millet’s spiraling fictional riffs and flounces show up their humans as bloated with foolishness yet curiously vulnerable, as in a tour-de-force Kabbalah-infused interior monologue by Madonna after she shoots a pheasant on her Scottish estate. Millet treads newly imaginative territory with these charismatic tales.

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